Down Syndrome A Congenital Chromosomal Disorder

Down syndrome is a congenital chromosomal disorder during maternal meiosis. This is one of the most common chromosomal disease that has been confirmed (Epstein, 2013). Down syndrome causes some symptoms in children’s physical and mental aspects, which have significant differences with other people. It may cause the life of the child is abnormal and cannot live independently in the future. With the increased population of children with Down syndrome in Australia, it becomes prominent that they strongly impact on their family and society in both positive and negative ways. This article will introduce some basic information about Down syndrome, discuss its early intervention and ethical issues of having a baby with Down syndrome, and result in coming up with views in regards to terminating or continuing with the pregnancy of a foetus diagnosed with Down syndrome. Down syndrome is also called 21 trisomy, which is obviously pointed out the disorder occurs at the chromosome 21. Genetically, it has been found that there are 22 pairs of autosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes, where X and Y are sex chromosomes representing female and male respectively. These two kinds of chromosome pairs are normally made up 46 chromosomes in total while children with Down syndrome have 47 chromosomes, meaning they have one extra chromosome on the chromosome 21. This chromosomal disorder happens occasionally and randomly. One cannot put blame or fault on the individual or parent when the gene isShow MoreRelatedEssay on Cystic Fibrosis1025 Words   |  5 Pages Cystic Fibrosis is a disorder where the exocrine glands secrete abnormally thick mucus, leading to obstruction of the pancreas and chronic infections of the lungs, which usually cause death in childhood or early adulthood. Some mildly affected patients may survive longer. Doctors can diagnose the disease by testing the patients perspiration because people with Cystic Fibrosis have high amounts of salt in their perspiration. Those with respiratory infections are treated with antibioticsRead More Down Syndrome Essay603 Words   |  3 Pagesresulting in the birth of a child with a genetic or congenital defect or disease. One of the most common of these genetic disorders is Down syndrome. This disorder takes its name from Dr. Langdon Down, who was the first to describe it formally, in 1866. Down syndrome is a condition marked by abnormal physical and mental development that is caused by a genetic defect. This genetic defect is caused by an extra chromosome. People born with Down syndrome have 47 chromosomes compared to the normal amountRead MoreCongenital Condition Of Congenital Heart Defects1188 Words   |  5 PagesINTRODUCTION Congenital Heart Defects (CHDs) include all structural anomalies of the heart and the intrathoracic great vessels resulting from the errors in morphogenesis, during development. The incidence of CHDs among live births is estimated to be 3.7 to 7.7 per 1000 (Ferencz et al. 1985). CHDs are etiologically heterogenous and it could be due to genetic (single gene defects, chromosomal abnormality) and or environmental (multifactorial, teratogens) or unknown factors (Michels and RicardiRead MoreDown Syndrome As A Cognitive Disorder Essay1315 Words   |  6 Pages Down syndrome as a cognitive disorder Down syndrome (DS) is relatively well known as a genetic disorder to the general public and children with this syndrome form one of the most readily identifiable groups of children with moderate to severe learning difficulties. It has been over 130 years since Langdon Down first described DS and 30 years since the presence of the defining extra copy of chromosome 21 was identified by Lejeune andRead MoreThe Disorder Of Down Syndrome1431 Words   |  6 Pagesever wonder or questioned the disorder of down syndrome? According to many National Down Syndrome Society within the United States, Down syndrome has occurred one out of eight hundred births. It is the most frequent form of mental retardation and characterized by well-defined events and distinctive features. It’s a lifelong disorder caused by a genetic defeat that’s none curable. It takes people with patients and kind hearts to care for people with Down syndrome disorder. History In the late nineteenthRead MoreDown Syndrome Essay1515 Words   |  7 PagesDown Syndrome Downs Syndrome, it is one of the most frequently occurring chromosomal abnormalities found in humans effecting people of all ages, races and economic levels. It is a chromosomal anomaly in cell development that results in a person being born with forty-seven chromosomes instead of the normal forty-six chromosomes. People with Down syndrome may have mild to severe learning disabilities and physical symptoms, which include a small skull, extra folds of skin under the eyes, andRead MoreThe Discovery Of Down Syndrome874 Words   |  4 PagesDown syndrome is a common disorder where the child gets an extra copy of the 21st chromosome. It happens in every 691 babies born in the United States. This adds up to about 6,000 babies born with the disorder a year. The major points in this paper are: when the disorder was discovered, the symptoms, the lifespan, the medical treatments, if it is a dominant trait, what chromosome is affected, and how it is passed down to offspring. The discovery of Down syndrome was by an English physician namedRead MoreGenetic Disorders : A Genetic Disorder954 Words   |  4 Pages A genetic disorder is an illness that is caused by one or multiple abnormalities in the genome. Genetic disorders are not unusual, however when a genetic disorder occurs it usually happens in one and every thousand or million persons. Sometimes genetic disorders can or cannot be heritable, meaning passed down from the parents to their offspring. Often times the parents are unaware that they can carry over a genetic disorder to their offspring. When genetic disorders that does not occur from theRead MoreHistory of the Patau Syndrome1850 Words   |  7 PagesPatau Syndrome, otherwise known as T13 is a very rare and lethal genetic disorder in which a person has three copies of chromosome 13 instead of two. T13 is characterized by the presence of an assortment of heart and brain malformation in newborns. Children with the disease are often born with multiple birth defects that are normally associated with T13 but not limited to it, including small eyes, undescended testicles, cleft lip/palate, and they consistently exhibit signs of mental deficiency and/orRead MoreCongenital Diseases : Congenital Disease1210 Words   |  5 PagesCongenital disease Congenital disease (birth defect) are defects of any kind that are present at birth. However, not all are caused by a mutation in the DNA. Another way to say congenital disorder are birth defects. Congenital disease is where it â€Å"occurs at birth or even before birth†¦the incidence is 2~5% in newborn and the percentage of congenital disease related to genetic or chromosome defects was 60~70%.; the other 30% of etiology was unknown†¦ congenital disease can be categorized into chromosome

Relationship between Poor Fetal Growth and the Subsequent...

Epidemiological and animal studies have shown a relationship between poor fetal growth with the subsequent development of obesity, type 2 diabetes, and metabolic syndrome (Ravelli et al. 1976; Hales Ozanne 2003; Painter et al. 2008; Pembrey 2010). Such developmental programming has been explained by the â€Å"thrifty phenotype† hypothesis, which proposes that poor fetal nutrition can result in reprogramming of the fetus, which allows the offspring to maximize the bodys capacity for energy storage under conditions of poor nutrition once out of the womb. However, this phenotype would be detrimental under conditions where normal or excessive nutrition are present and would thus promote obesity (Hales Ozanne 2003). Body weight, food intake and metabolism are regulated by the hypothalamus that processes central and peripheral signals. Within the hypothalamus, neurons residing in the ARC (arcuate nucleus) – PVN (paraventricular) –PF/LH (perifornical/lateral hypothalamus) axis communicate with each other and are subjected to the influence of several peripheral factors, including leptin and insulin (Davis et al. 2010). The action of these hormones on food intake occurs in part by convergence on a specific set of neurons within the ARC (Elmquist et al. 1998, Abizaid Horvath 2008) that contains neuronal populations expressing orexigenic neuropeptide Y (NPY) and agouti-related peptide (AgRP) and the anorectic pro- opiomelanocortin (POMC). NPY synthesis and secretion have been found

Medical Malpractice Free Essays

How do we quantify pain and suffering? This question should be answered satisfactorily before people could even attempt to debate whether or not to impose limits on recovery in medical malpractice cases. Undoubtedly, it is difficult to talk about limits on damage awards without a standardized costing system which would guide the proper authorities to come up with a fair determination of the damages done to victims of medical malpractice. Since there is no such system, the task of ascertaining the extent of damage inflicted on victims is usually left to the country’s judicial system which decides the issue on a case-to-case basis. We will write a custom essay sample on Medical Malpractice or any similar topic only for you Order Now This being the case, setting a maximum limit or a cap on the amount that could be awarded to victims would be very difficult to justify because such an act would be highly discriminatory. For instance, a cap of $200,000 would mean that claimants could not be awarded with more than said amount. The unfairness of this system would be immediately evident in a situation where two individuals suffer the loss of their upper limbs, the first victim losing one and the second suffering from the loss of both limbs. The court could award $140,000 to the first victim who loses one limb, for example, but the claim of the second victim would be limited to $200,000 despite losing both limbs. What it would amount to is that the other limb lost by the second victim would only be compensated with $60,000. In this example, the second victim is not compensated fairly for his/her loss. Setting a cap therefore discriminates against the victim who suffers more. (Hiatt, 2002) Another question worth asking is: Who stands to gain if we do limit recovery? If the first question tends to be highly contentious, this second question involves a cut-and-dried issue because the answer is rather obvious. Putting a cap on awards granted in connection with medical malpractice cases favors only the medical practitioners who commit the act to the utter detriment of the victims. In other words, setting such a cap would treat the victims unfairly and favor the perpetrators. This, too, is discrimination. Some quarters attempt to justify this act by saying that providing for a maximum limit to recovery is a way of stemming the spiraling cost of health care in the country. Opponents, however, argue that this is not only deceptive but unconstitutional as well. (Hiatt, 2002) Critics of a cap on damage awards argue that it violates the Fourteenth Amendment which provides â€Å"equal protection† to all Americans. As illustrated earlier, a cap denies â€Å"equal protection† to those victims who suffer more, because they could not claim compensation beyond what the statutory cap allows. This was cited in Jones v. State Board of Medicine where the court declared unconstitutional the 1975 Hospital-Medical Liability Act passed by Idaho because it failed to treat victims of malpractice equally. In other words under the Act, the claimants whose injuries were deemed below the cap received full compensation while those whose damages exceeded the limit were denied the opportunity to recover fully because they were not awarded full compensation. (Hiatt, 2002) Another objection voiced against putting a cap on damage awards is the fact that it violates the individual’s â€Å"right to trial by jury.† Under the law, evaluating the extent of damages is a function of a jury. In the presence of a cap, the role of the jury is limited only up to the extent of the cap – in effect, interfering with the constitutional duty of a jury. In Boyd v. Bulala, the opinion of the federal district court was that the cap of $750,000 on damage awards set by the state of Virginia â€Å"violated the right to trial by jury provided for by both federal and state constitutions.† (Hiatt, 2002) It is clear from the foregoing discussion that limiting the recovery in medical malpractice cases is very prejudicial to the interests of the victims. In the interest of fairness, every malpractice case should be deliberated on by a jury based on its own merits and the extent of damage award be assessed without the constraints of a cap. This will give every victim of medical malpractice cases the much-needed opportunity for a full recovery. Reference Hiatt, M.D. (2002). Caps on Damage Awards in Medical Malpractice Cases: Constitutional Challenges. Retrieved October 28, 2007 from http://jpands.org/hacienda/hiatt1.html       How to cite Medical Malpractice, Essay examples

Project Management Methodology for Procedia- myassignmenthelp

Question: Discuss about theProject Management Methodology for ProcediaEngineering. Answer: For achieving the goals and for a defined schedule and budget, the manager tends to use a project. The methodology is a model which the project manager employs for a better designing, planning and the implementation of their objectives for a project. Jhertzfeld, (2006), considers that the project management is the art to work on the different defined constraints related to the scope, time, cost and quality. In this, the team has to organize the commitment of effort in order to produce a proper outcome, considering the constraints. The project manager is the person who is responsible for driving the project to success. Meredith Mantel, (2011), consider the project management mainly in terms to produce the project outcomes related to the cost, a proper scheduling, and the specifications. The project managers are considered to work on developing and executing the plans that meet the different parameters and focus on outcomes in terms of requirements. According to them, the knowledge, skills, and tools are important to meet the expectations of the client and focus on delivering the product rather than project specifications. Mullaly M., (2003), quotes project management as the way to manage the job functions for which the project managers are responsible for. The role of managingof producing a proper delivering and then overseeing the project as a whole helps in clearly communicating a defined value. Its role The effective use of PM is in the project management practices which includes: The adaptive framework of the project with certain constants like the time and cost. For proper execution of the project, the project scope is adjusted depending upon the maximum business value of the project. The Agile Software development for the project needs with extreme agility in requirements, dynamic team culture, and less restrictive project control. They are for lowing the cost which relates to the changes of requirements that are important for the fine-scale feedback and the continuous process (Karaman Kurt, 2015). The methodology focusses on the simple and the well-defined process with proper planning so that the different activities could be handled. The role is to develop products faster with a higher and better quality. The aim is to gather the requirements and use the workshop prototype that is used for getting clear requirements and re-use the software components with the development of timelines. Compare and contrast Similarities: The project management helps the people adopt a generic approach to using it with any project. Considering the risk areas, PM team and organization helps in creating a successful project that offers a greater flexibility and control. The inputs, outputs, tools, and techniques with knowledge areas include Integration Management, Scope, Time and cost management with proper procurement services (Jamali Oveisi, 2016). It helps in defining and approaching to execution and monitoring the control with tracking the progress and checking the performances which are required for implementing the required changes. Differences Prince 2 PMBOK Approach Prescriptive approach with templates, and proper roles and responsibilities for the different stakeholders. The body of knowledge with highly descriptive comprehensive that includes the different processes, tools, and the techniques. Knowledge approach The process-driven approach that helps in describing the Project Manager and the other stakeholders. They tell them what needs to be exactly done in the project. The approach is to define the knowledge collection and recognize the project best practices which a project manager should know. Knowledge areas Integration There is a combination of the processes, themes and the changes. Efficiency Requires scope, time and cost A proper planning, with business case and progress. Risks Risks Risks Procedure Communication Progress Procurement Yes None Management HRM, Stakeholder Management Organisation The processes of Prince 2 are to focus on starting up a project which includes the activities to assemble the project management team and create the project brief depending on the approach, and the plan. The project initiation is depending upon documenting the project plan, business case, risks and the project for the next project. Project Direction is to control the project and involve the authorizations with giving a proper direction and confirming project initiation stage plans. The controlling phase is related to the activities and then managing the issues with status reviews and then also taking different actions for escalating the issues and receiving the work packages. The management of the stages with proper planning and updating the information depends on handling the risk logs and reporting the ends of the project. The management of the product delivery with its closure includes the proper final testing and delivery package. The project life cycle is handled through working on project delivery of the new or the changed products. With this, there are roles to determine the different aspects of the project that will ensure a proper planning to work in detail (Brioso, 2015). The importance of the project is to evaluate the original plans and plan to lesson depending upon expected costs and benefits with operations. The analysis is done for the business case to recognize the project management from the customer side with major advantage to maintain the focus on business products as well. References Brioso, X. (2015). Integrating ISO 21500 guidance on project management, lean construction and PMBOK.Procedia Engineering,123, 76-84. Jamali, G., Oveisi, M. (2016). A Study on Project Management Based on PMBOK and PRINCE2.Modern Applied Science,10(6), 142. Jhertzfeld, (2006).Simple Definitions: Project, Project Management, Project Manager. [online] Available at: https://it.toolbox.com/blogs/jhertzfeld/simple-definitions-project-project-management-project-manager-070606 Karaman, E., Kurt, M. (2015). Comparison of project management methodologies: prince 2 versus PMBOK for it projects.Int. Journal of Applied Sciences and Engineering Research,4(5), 657-664. Meredith, J. R., Mantel Jr, S. J. (2011).Project management: a managerial approach. John Wiley Sons. Mullaly, M. (2003).Project Management: A New Definition. [online] ProjectManagement.com. Available at: https://www.projectmanagement.com/articles/183068/Project-Management--A-New-Definition.

Legal Studies free essay sample

With the very nature and fluidity of Family Law, many attempts at definitive meanings are met with a high degree of confusion even by the most learned minds. Family law is an area of the law that deals with family-related issues and domestic relations. This can includes the establishment of family and domestic relationships, the rules for creating a union, right up to their termination or dissolution, and the subsequent issues related to this, such as alimony, child support, property division, custody etc. When the bliss of a marriage turns cold, there are many couples out there, or even individuals who believe that their marriage is beyond help therefore result in divorce. In a case of divorce there are many stakeholders who can be affected by the breakdown of a marriage. Your spouse is a stakeholder in your marriage, because it is his or her marriage also. But there are other stakeholders in your marriage as well; people who have serious investments of their own in your marriage. We will write a custom essay sample on Legal Studies or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Children under the age of 18 depend on their parents in every significant way, but besides the minor children, there are other stakeholders: adult children, parents and siblings, in-laws, and shared friends are the most typical. Divorce, as a legal issue includes an array of stakeholders, including the general public, judges, and politicians. One major stakeholder in this case is Tony Abbott. On July 10, 2009, Tony Abbott, the Opposition families and Aboriginal affairs spokesperson called for a return to the fault-based system of divorce that was discarded in 1975, to be replaced by a no-fault system. Mr Abbotts plan would see additional grounds for divorce reintroduced, including adultery, cruelty, habitual drunkenness and imprisonment. This proposal has been confronted with mixed responses. (Author Unknown, Should Australia retain no fault-based divorce? , 2009) Some have welcomed what they see as an attempt to address some of the shortcomings of the Family Law Act. Others have been highly critical of what they see as a return to an adversarial and unsatisfactory system. Although Abbott had introduced this plan in high faith that it would reduce divorce numbers, many have disagreed with this reintroduction, claiming that the current law has met society’s expectations.

Be Alone in a Crowd Essays

Be Alone in a Crowd Essays Be Alone in a Crowd Essay Be Alone in a Crowd Essay â€Å"We are born  alone, we live  alone, and we die  alone. Only through our love and friendship can we create the illusion for the moment that were not  alone. † This quote was addressed by Orson Welles, an American motion-picture actor, director, producer and writer. Perhaps, Welles is favorable to being alone. When I first read his quote, I was filled with awe that I can’t forget what he said. His words keep running in my head. Welles is right. We will live a life alone. Being alone doesn’t mean we don’t want to socialize with others. There are many reasons why we want to be alone. Just like me, I prefer to be alone in a crowd. Sometimes, I want to be alone for the sole reason of meditating. Just like what Marilyn Monroe said, â€Å"I restore myself when I’m alone. † There are things I don’t want to open up with my friends, so I just keep it to myself and think of it. Ambitions, problems and duties are the things that run in my mind when I’m alone. I think of God when I’m doing nothing. Examining my conscience assists me in doing good deeds. Through this, I will be able to identify what needs to be done. Knowing myself better happens when I’m with no one else. Another quote that moved my heart is â€Å"Its better to be unhappy alone than unhappy with someone so far. † This famous quote of Marilyn Monroe reflects the people who want to isolate themselves with bad company. It is far better to be alone than to be in a bad company. These people want themselves to be associated with men of good quality and to be influenced with desirable traits. Just like me, I want to be influenced with these desirable traits when I’m still young. It is better if we are trained to be well-behaved person when we are still young. This foundation will help us in our growing years.

The news' topic Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

The news' topic - Essay Example This statement followed Kremlin’s ordering of its combat aircraft around Ukraine to be on high alert (Oliphant par. 4). An eye witness stated that inside parliament were about 60 people who were heavily armed (Oliphant par. 5). Another witness stated that parliament’s door was blockaded using chairs and tables from the inside to the extent that no one could enter the building. So far, no one has been reported to have been injured following the incident. Crimea, unlike other parts of Ukraine, has ethnic Russians forming the majority of the population. The seizure of the capital has come at a time when Ukraine’s new leaders were voicing their concerns over the possible cessation of the region from Ukraine. It has also come at a time when some ethnic Russians living in the region have been calling on Vladimir Putin, the Russian President, to reclaim the territory from Ukraine. The territory had been given to Soviet Ukraine in 1954 by Nikita Khrushchev. Meanwhile, the U.S. has been quick to warn that military intervention by the Russian military against Ukraine will be a gross move. Oliphant, Roland. Ukraine crisis: Russian flag raised in Crimea as gunmen storm parliament. The Telegraph. 27 Feb 2014. Web.

Sexuality And Culture A Relationship Analysis Movie Review

Sexuality And Culture A Relationship Analysis - Movie Review Example In the paper "Sexuality And Culture A Relationship Analysis" the influence of the cultural norms and values with the sexuality overall will assess. Though with the globalization of the world and increasing personnel movement across the globe, there has evolved a situation where many cultures are intersected at various points and people belonging to one culture, may exhibit behaviors related to some other cultures at times, but the extent of the influence of the culture on sexuality is still evident It can be consciously said that the cultural norms if seen with the context of the region and the society a person lives in dictates in a better way, a person exhibits his behaviors. Cultural Product under Discussion Various cultures in the world have very different and unique ways of expressing the sexual desire. In few of the cultures, there may be very few instances when a male might express to the female, his desire to indulge in the sexual interaction. Whereby, indulging into sex may be considered something very sacred or treating it as an ‘event’ thus making it a very rare occasional call for sex. Whereas in some cultures, the way a male would express his desire to sexually interact with the female partner may be just as having dined out at the weekend. This is all very much influenced by the culture a person lives into. Therefore, it is necessary for the matter of discussion and analysis that a particular cultural product or a society be chosen to look into the cultural aspects of sexuality.

Group Project 2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Group Project 2 - Essay Example It is the role of the appropriate staff to take steps to correct a problem and to prevent a recurrence through implementation of the recommendations arising from investigation. Once the incident is detected, it should be assessed, categorized, prioritized, and queued for appropriate action. After that, a research should be conducted about the incident; on what had happened and who has been affected, etc. Incidence response requires taking necessary actions, to resolve the issue, by doing all that is necessary (Reilly, 2003). CERT receives an incident report through the incident handling system via various means of communication such as a phone call, walk-in reports, e-mail, fax and websites among others. The team usually consolidates the reporting channels, especially using the e-mail. The system formally registers the report by linking it to some Alphanumerical reference to enable easy management in the future. The system should be protected against spam and implementing pre-filtering mechanisms. An incident should then be verified and classified according to the information on the report. The incidents vary in severity (very high include DDoS, high include Trojan distribution and normal include spam). An incident should then be assigned to an incident handler. Incident resolution is administered next, towards realizing the desired result. Data is collected from those affected; through the exchange of ideas, some of those that are concrete and practical enough to be implemented are set for the different parties (Reilly,

Genetic basis for criminality and anti social behaviour

Genetic basis for criminality and anti social behaviour What are the implications for society? We are what we repeatedly do is a quote by one of the greatest revolutionary minds of all time, Aristotle. Though its millennia since he lived, his logic isnt too outdated, if you frequently donate to charity, then youre benevolent. If you repeatedly break the law, youre a criminal. The modern question is where these behaviours stem from; your genetics or your environment? There is an increasing amount of empirical evidence on the contribution of genetic factors to individual differences in criminal and antisocial behaviours (Turkheimer et al. 1995). A recent meta-analysis of over 400 studies suggests that about 41% of human behaviour is genetically influenced with greatest heritability for antisocial behaviour and smoking (Malouff et al. 2008). It is a topic relevant both in a scientific and a social context. Should the discovery of a genetic basis for antisocial behaviour change the way it is treated and viewed by society? Or lead to a change in its definition, if youre a criminal due to a genetic predisposition, is it different to part-taking in criminal behaviour without a found genetic component? It is necessary to begin by asking, what is criminal and antisocial behaviour? It isnt simply disobedience, some forms of disobedience are acts designed to change the law or common practice such as the suffragette movement (CIBA Foundation Symposium. 1996). Other acts break the law, but are entirely acceptable within subgroups of society such as the recreational taking of cannabis. Some behaviour also breaks the law purely because the offender is below a legally defined age such as with alcohol and sex. One definition of antisocial behaviour is behaviour that lacks consideration for others and that may cause damage to society, whether intentionally or through negligence (Berger, 2003). Criminality falls under this definition of antisocial behaviour. This definition will be adopted here but it must be noted that antisocial behaviour cannot be restricted to that which is disapproved in all societies. In accord with the opening quote, repetition is important. In Farringtons 1995 study o f males from inner-city London, 96% admitted to having committed one or more of ten common crimes such as theft, violence, vandalism. Yet, we dont view 96% of the human population as criminals. Over the past decades, there has been a paradigm shift in the way human behaviour is approached. The social learning model has been majorly replaced by a balanced view emphasising the importance of genetic and environmental factors on human behaviour. There is now a wealth of evidence supporting that both genetics and environmental factors play an important role in accounting for individual differences in antisocial and criminal behaviour. There are two basic approaches to researching behavioural genetics. The first is classical genetics designs; a traditional approach involving no DNA examination. It analyses individual differences in a given trait by examining patterns of resemblance among individuals who are related genetically, environmentally or both (Baker et al, 2006), by studying twins, nuclear families and adoptive families. Classical approaches broadly determine whether genes are important and estimate the extent of the genetic influence. The second method studies Quantitative Trait Loci (QTL), genes which exert small but significant influence on complex traits. A QTL approach is considered more molecular than the classical designs because it narrowly specifies DNA sequences that increase risk for antisocial behaviour. This molecular aspect is a much more recent and developing approach than the classical studies, however, it is an important technique and studies are emerging indicating specific gene associati ons. To date, the classical approach has provided the scientific community with abundant evidence for both genetic and environmental influences on antisocial and criminal behaviour. The studies vary in the type of antisocial behaviour (juvenile delinquency, aggression, adult criminal behaviour etc), the definition of antisocial behaviour and the way its measured (official and school records, behavioural ratings by parents or teachers, self-reporting). It has been studied across the human lifespan and males are more extensively studied than females. Due to the inconsistency between each study, reviews of these studies are important to draw well-informed conclusions. A review by Rhee and Waldman in 2002 looked at 51 distinct studies which focused on some aspect of antisocial behaviour. The results of the studies were combined to estimate the relative effect of genetic and environmental influences. There a significant effects of additive genetic influence (0.32), non-additive genetic influen ces (0.09), shared (0.19) and non-shared environment (0.43), which clearly demonstrates the effect of heredity and environment on antisocial behaviour. The review also found that non-additive genetic effects appear most strongly for criminality compared to other forms of antisocial behaviour, and that there was a strong and decreasing importance of shared environment factors from childhood to adulthood. Genetics seems to be more strongly correlated with criminality and antisocial behaviour in adulthood than in childhood or adolescence. A wide range of behaviours are considered antisocial, however, it may be beneficial, especially in a legal context, to study illegal, criminal behaviours. Several large scale twin studies have been conducted in various countries such as USA (Cadoret et al. 1995) and Denmark (Hutchings Mednicks. 1975). They found that there is higher agreement between monozygotic (MZ) twins, who are genetically identical, than dizygotic (DZ) twins, who on average share 50% of their genes, for property crimes such as theft and vandalism (Cloninger Gottesman. 2000). This indicates a genetic component which is further backed up by evidence that property crime convictions among adopted individuals significantly increased when the biological parent was convicted but showed little or no increase when adopted children were raised by adoptive parents with such convictions (Baker et al. 1989). In the case of committing violent crimes, there seems to be no increased risk when studied as a function of adoptive or biological parents. In contrast to the large genetic influence on adult criminality, childhood behaviours such as minor rule breaking, theft, truancy, vandalism, can apparently be explained by environmental factors. Small genetic influence was only found in theft and minor rule breaking (Baker et al. 2006). Antisocial behaviour and aggression play key roles in the diagnosis of three mental disorders. Antisocial personality disorder in adults often involves aggressive, impulsive, and irresponsible behaviour. Significant genetic influences have been consistently found in twin samples and adoption studies. Conduct disorder is a childhood behavioural problem indicated by aggression, destructive behaviours, theft, dishonesty and truancy. It is thought to be a severe and clinical form of antisocial behaviour. It is associated with negative outcomes such as drug abuse, depression and, as adults, antisocial personality disorder. Multiple studies have shown that children with conduct disorder have a largely increased risk of developing antisocial personality disorder as an adult (Loeber. 1991). A history of antisocial personality disorder in a parent is the strongest predictor of persistence of conduct disorder from childhood into adolescence (Lahey et al. 2000). Like in antisocial personality d isorder, significant genetic effects have been found in twin samples and adoption studies (Eaves et al. 1997). Recent studies have shown that conduct disorder is significantly heritable, with estimates ranging from 27% to 78% (Baker et al. 2006). It seems theres a wealth of evidence indicating a strong link between genetics and conduct disorder and antisocial personality disorder. The third mental disorder is oppositional defiant disorder which is characterised by a repeated pattern of negative, aggressive and defiant behaviour in children. Twin studies have also investigated the heritability of oppositional defiant disorder. Several found significant genetic influences in oppositional defiant disorder symptoms, with heritability estimates ranging from 14% to 65% (Eaves et al. 1997). All these studies provide direct evidence for genetic influences on antisocial behaviour. However, there are numerous studies that provide indirect evidence by examining the genetics of traits that correlate with antisocial behaviour. Understanding the genetic influences on correlated traits can give us important information on the genetic mechanisms underlying antisocial behaviour. One of the most relevant traits is impulsivity. Individuals are differently susceptible to antisocial behaviour due to variation in traits such as impulsivity which are heritable according to data from large twin and adoption studies. Heritability estimates range from 20% to 72% (Coccaro et al. 1993). It is thought that genes modulate behaviours such as impulsivity, which can lead to other disorders such conduct disorders, antisocial personality disorder and ADHD. ADHD in childhood has been linked to antisocial behaviour in two ways. Research has shown that, children with ADHD are more likely than those w ithout it to show antisocial behaviour as an adult (Hetchman et al. 1984). It appears that children who have symptoms of ADHD have a more persistent form of conduct disorder. Other studies have shown that youths exhibiting both ADHD and antisocial behaviour manifest severe forms of antisocial behaviour such as extreme physical aggression. An adoption study has shown a high genetic component for attention problems which are a key diagnostic feature of ADHD (Van Den Oord et al. 1994) and heritability estimates range from 39% to 91% (Thapar et al. 1999). As shown, there is an abundance of classical genetic studies showing the importance of genetic predispositions as well as environmental factors. However, this research contributes little to the exact biological mechanisms underlying the genetic effects. They represent black boxes in our understanding of antisocial behaviour. Some recent approaches have been adopted to tackle this gap in our knowledge. One such approach is a measured risk factor which investigates traits and behaviours known to correlate with the risk of antisocial behaviour. Multivariate genetic models are used to explain sources of genetic covariance underlying the correlation between a trait and antisocial behaviour. This may be applied to the traits discussed earlier such as impulsivity, attention deficit but also to biological risk factors such as hormones, neurotransmitters etc. However, little research using this method has been done to date. (Little has been done using this method to date. ) A second approach is by using QTL designs which identifies specific genes as having associations with or functional significance in antisocial behaviour. It could be called a measured gene approach. Knowing the genes involved in behavioural disorders such as those discussed, including antisocial behaviour, brings with it a better understanding of the genetic mechanisms. Identifying particular genes associated with different disorders that regulate, say, neurotransmitter activity may allow adjustment of their levels by pharmacological methods. Genes associated with neurotransmitters have been identified for antisocial behaviour, in particular serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine or 5-HT). Low levels of serotonin have been shown to increase impulsivity and repress sensible behaviour, both of which are linked to antisocial behaviour (Moore et al. 2002). A serotonergic gene with a relationship to antisocial behaviour is the gene coding for the serotonin receptor. A variant polymorphism of this gene, Serotonic2A Receptor gene (HTR2A), was found to be associated with drug abuse, shoplifting, hostility, vandalism and rape (Comings. 2000). Another serotonergic gene associated with antisocial behaviour is the HTR1DA gene which is suspected to play a role in serotonin metabolism. The C variant of this gene was found to be significantly associated with antisocial personality disorder in adults and conduct disorder in children (Comings. 2000). In particular, studies on aggression, a form of antisocial behaviour, have made advances in this field. A detailed analysis of 24 studies of the genetics of aggression indicated that heritability accounts for around 50% of the variance (Rhee Waldman, 2002). It was also noted that heritability for aggression was more important in adulthood than childhood and was higher in males than in females. Studies have shown that the Y chromosome is important for aggression in males, through its role in male determination but also through other Y-linked loci. When the male determining gene (Sry) was deleted in mice, it was shown that aggression was independent of the Sry locus implying other genes on the X and Y chromosomes are involved (Gatewood et al. 2006). One candidate gene related to sexual differences is the gene coding for the androgen receptor (AR), two studies have found a significant link for males with shorter trinucleotide repeat motif with verbal aggression (Jonsson at al. 2001) or violent criminal activity such as murder and rape (Rajender et al. 2008). A wealth of research indicates the key role of serotonin in aggression. Monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) is an enzyme which oxidases biogenic amines such as serotonin (5-HT), noradrenalin and adrenalin. Null mutations in the MAOA locus which cause an imbalance in serotonin metabolism are correlated with aggression in humans (Brunner et al. 1993). Later studies have centred on detecting behavioural associations with VNTR variants in MAOA. Significant associations have been found between longer base pair alleles of the MAOA gene and behaviour disorders including ADHD, conduct disorder and substance abuse (Comings. 2000). Other genes thought to be involved in the association between aggression and serotonin include the genes coding for tryptophan hydroxylase enzyme, which catalyses the rate limiting step in serotonin production and the genes coding for the serotonin receptors. There are further strong genetic associations between stress and aggression with candidate genes including those codi ng for dopamine-beta-hydroxylase and adrenaline receptors. Genetic influences on behaviour are not simple to understand. Gene expression for antisocial behaviour frequently depends on a number of other factors such as the effects of other genes or environmental influences. Classical genetic studies indicate strong interactions between genes and environment. The conclusion from candidate gene studies is that there are few, if any loci with a large effect; it is becoming increasingly obvious that the impact of genes is multifactorial; including other genes and the environment (Craig Halton. 2009). Studies of antisocial behaviour now require a comprehensive view of biological and social risk factors as well as their interaction. The extent to which genetic influence varies as a function of environmental effects is known as a gene X environment (GxE) interaction. A significant GxE interaction has been found in all major adoption studies of criminal convictions, such that the genetic predispositions, indicated by biological-parent antisocial beh aviour, presents the greatest risk to the adopted offspring in the presence of adverse environmental conditions, indicated by adoptive-parent antisocial behaviour (Baker et al. 2006). Negative environmental factors due to being raised by antisocial parents may have the largest impact on individuals who are genetically predisposed towards antisocial behaviour (Cloninger Gottesman. 2000). GxE is also seen at the specific gene level. A deleterious MAOB gene linked to aggression in human and mice has been demonstrated to have the greatest influence on antisocial behaviour in individuals who have experienced severe mistreatment during childhood (Caspi et al. 2002). The discovery of GxE interactions in antisocial behaviour highlights the sheer complexity of the gene-behaviour relationship. Until the past decade, there was very little research done to investigate how different risk factors interact in predisposing individuals to antisocial behaviour. Recently, there is a renewed interest in biosocial interaction effects and a number of possible interactive processes for biological and social risk factors have been outlined in the Biosocial Model. It acknowledges that biological risk factors may directly result in antisocial behaviour independent of social risk factors and vice-versa; this is the assumption of the majority of research to date. The essence of the biosocial model is that biological and social risk factors interact to produce antisocial behaviour. It also states that protective factors can disrupt all three pathways; biological, social and biosocial. A key understanding in the model is that there are antisocial subtypes and risk factors give rise to both a general predisposition to antisocial behaviour and different antisocial subtypes with potentially diff erent etiological bases, such as psychopathy or violence. Going back to the original question, is there a genetic basis for criminality and antisocial behaviour? The answer would have to be yes; there is a genetic basis for criminality and antisocial behaviour, and for most human behaviours. The evidence of its existence is out there in overwhelming quantity and multiple forms. Taking the answer as yes, there is a magnitude of other things that must also be understood. Attempting to understand genetic involvement in any behaviour is complicated, no gene has a monopoly control over any behaviour and its workings can only be understood in the light of interaction with other genes, environmental influences and protective factors. Future genetic studies of human behaviour require a comprehensive view of the interaction of biological and social risk factors; the adoption of an interactive predisposition approach. In behavioural sciences, the three essential guidelines are probability, probability, and probability. this is an essential quote by a leading psychologist Sandra Scarr. This is the second point of understanding; no aspect of human behaviour is so black and white that the presence of a gene means the behaviour is inevitable. Genes work in a probabilistic manner. There are no genes for long legs, but all things being equal, having gene a will give you an increased likelihood of having longer legs. In all things being equal, the all things are the genetic environment; the influence of other genes, the social environment; shared and unshared influences, and the interaction of these things. When these are equal in two individuals, the possession of gene a in individual 1 makes it more probable that his legs are longer than the legs of individual 2 who possesses gene b. In the same way, just because an individual has a shorter trinucleotide repeat in their androgen receptor does not mean they deterministically will murder and rape; it just increases the probability of them doing so. This probabilistic view, as opposed to a deterministic view, of genetic influence is essential to the appropriate social understanding of genetic predisposition to antisocial behaviour and criminality. This paradigm shift in how human behaviour is viewed, away from a social learning model and towards an interactive predisposition, will be reflected in society. One implication of a genetically based disposition to antisocial behaviour is the possible absolution of an individuals responsibility for such behaviour. As much as the advances are huge advances in the field of genetics in relation to antisocial behaviour, the broader picture is not complete. In most cases, genetic predisposition alone is currently too little understood to be a tool in so serious a matter as criminal blame. It is evident that there is a large genetic influence on these behaviours but only a few genes have been pinpointed with confidence in their effects. A more complete understanding of environmental influences is also needed, if genetic predisposition can be used to free or reduce a person of guilt, then so can early environment which also predisposes an individual to antisocial behaviours. This gets into an area where influences may be harder to prove. Also, it has been highlighted that the relationship between genotype and phenotype for antisocial behaviour is not linear, there are other influences such epistasis; this must be researched more fully so it is clearly understood before appropriate changes in society and the legal system can come about. In the future, when genetic predisposition is more adequately understood behavioural genetics could potentially be used in almost every aspect of the criminal justice system. Genetic behavioural forensic profiling might be used in law enforcement to predict the defendants personality and behavioural traits. Behavioural genetic information could be presented at a bail hearing by the prosecutor advising no bail to be granted due to the genetic predisposition to impulsivity or violence. It may also be used to support an insanity defence or as an independent basis for acquittal or used at parole hearings, to deny parole or as a basis for release (Rothstein. 2005). However, it is possible, even with this lack of understanding, to apply genetic predisposition to the legal system in personality disorders. As discussed, individuals who repeatedly show antisocial behaviour have a genetic predisposition. Personality disorders are often characterized by a manifest of persistent antisocial behaviour. Should a personality disorder be permitted to nullify or reduce responsibility for a criminal act? The modern answer seems to be yes. Apart from genetic predisposition, the main reasoning is that personality disorders are highly similar to other disorders that remain eligible for consideration in an insanity defence and a rule excluding them from forming the basis of a not guilty defence is scientifically indefensible and jurisprudentially hazardous (Kinscherff. 2010). This argument is the groundwork for the foundation of a criminal responsibility defence. A verdict of not guilty by reason of insanity does not mean the individual returns to the community. They are usually committed to a state psychiatric facility for a time, often longer than they would have spent in prison and this must be applied to a not guilty plea on the grounds of a personality disorder. If a defendant successfully uses impairments arising from a personality disorder to nullify criminal responsibility then the defendant should be assumed dangerous and to protect public safety, they should be subjected to int ervention to achieve the goal of incapacitation, potentially with lifetime supervision. Further research is needed as currently there is no demonstrated effective intervention for some personality disorders, especially antisocial personality disorder. The alternate proposition is that a personality disorder should not nullify responsibility for a criminal act. This implies that there is some conceptual bright line distinguishing personality disorders and all other mental disorders in terms of genetic heritability, etiology, neuro-cognitive functioning or other relevant dimension; however, this implication is not supported by science (Kinscherff. 2010). Another implication of a genetically based disposition to antisocial and criminal behaviour is the treatment of these people in society. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, researchers believed that genes were fully responsible for criminal activity and that criminals could be identified by their physiological features. This information, combined with ideas of a eugenics movement led to acts of sterilisation to rid society of criminals, idiots, imbeciles, and rapists (Joseph, 2001). This belief induced a period of widespread inhumane treatment in Western Europe and many USA states. Genetic research into human behaviour was also misused to support Nazi claims of racial superiority, which directly affected millions in World War 2 (Rothstein. 1999). To prevent this, society must be educated in the probabilistic view of genetic influence, along with the importance of environmental factors and their interaction. This is where the media plays a crucial role; the genetics of human behaviour have always been popular with the public. However, the descriptions of scientific research in the popular media are not always controlled. There is an increasing number of reports advocating that violence, impulsivity, aggression and other behaviours are hard-wired rather than caused by many factors (Clark et al. 2000). Misunderstanding and over-estimation of the role of genes in human behaviour is of great concern. It is to be expected that individuals and institutions may act on these misconceptions. Many entities with financial interest in the behaviour of particular individuals might seek to use genetic information to predict behaviour; insurers might be liable for injuries caused by an impulsive or aggressive individual. Employers may be interested in a potential employees behavioural disposition. The wrongful use of behavioural genetics in employment could lead to the exclusion of individuals from important opportunities. Laws may be needed to prevent generi c discrimination in employment and to protect the confidentiality of genetic information. Behavioural genetic information is an ethical and societal issue; it brings to light individual and social ideas of equality of opportunity, discrimination and personal responsibility. A final implication is the great need to try and identify those individuals, especially children, who may become susceptible to certain disorders or personality traits that can lead into antisocial, delinquent, or criminal behavior, in confidence. Society needs to focus on the treatment and rehabilitation of those individuals in need. Certain educational, environment enrichment programs have been shown to have a lasting effect on children if given by a certain age (Raine et al. 2003). If more of these programs could be developed, society could help prevent the future antisocial or criminal behavior of children, minimizing genetic factors in the role of human behaviour. One misapplication of the need to identify predisposed individuals is in fetal screening. Is the utilization of genetic information to determine who should and should not be born a reversion to the negative eugenic practices of the early twentieth century (Paul. 1994)? Prospective parents might test embryos for a genet ic marker before implantation to avoid giving birth to a child with potential for criminality. The use of genetic information in order to select against potential humans with undesirable traits certainly smacks of eugenic motivations (Duster. 1990). Society needs a deep understanding of interactive predisposition before it is capable of correctly dealing with important ethical debates such as this one. In light of recent research, it is impossible to deny the role of genetics in behaviour. As the topic catches the medias eye more and more, the idea of behavioural genetic determinism becomes ever more popular and widespread, there is a potential for misuse and misunderstanding of behavioural genetic information. As its application in everyday life is likely to increase, this misunderstanding is a critical societal challenge which needs to be tackled immediately. Unless this concern is addressed, there is a risk that the legal and commercial applications of behavioural genetics will outpace the science to our detriment. It must be widely understood that having a genetic predisposition for criminal behavior does not determine the actions of an individual, but if they are exposed to the right environment, then their chances are greater for engaging in criminal or antisocial behavior. As much as there is a need for further genetic research, social science needs to research the effect of genetic explanations for behaviour on individuals and society.

New Urbanism in The Truman Show Essay -- movies, films, film analysis

The Town of Seahaven Island is spiritually uplifting, quaint, and completely artificial. Everything and everyone, including the main character, Truman, are predictable in habit and pattern. Nothing happens spontaneously or out of synch. When Truman steps out of his usual routine, the entire town must leap into choreography of damage control. Carefully anticipated, controlled perfection must be restored, but this portrayal of contemporary urban life, however exaggerated, may be inappropriate (Rees; 2003; 104). New Urbanists believe physical design can influence behaviours and attitudes and cause organic evolution of ideal communities. In fact, romanticizing the village model through architectural codification and rules of development may be less engaging than vague and bland. Several criticisms of the New Urbanism style of community, versions of which are becoming extremely privatized, have been discussed. The New Urbanism regime of community is utopian and unnatural—a contradiction of the very ideals purported. New Urbanism is â€Å"family values architecture† of middle-class conservatism (Rees; 103). The simulated island portrayed in this film is certainly that. There are no distinctions of citizen wealth; everyone has a job except for the father who is initially portrayed as a wildly uncharacteristic homeless person. There are even an inordinate number of street sweepers and window washers. The costumes are decidedly 1950’s conservative values in style. These symbols are as stereotypical as the architecture, invoking a sense of pretense rather than the social transformation New Urbanists advance as â€Å"new† and therefore â€Å"good†. The New Urbanist outlook is one calling for an attractive, usable and democratic public commun... ...gle of totality (anything that is not New Urbanist is â€Å"bad†), the premise of New Urbanism being postmodern is confusing. â€Å"The location of New Urbanism both inside and outside postmodernism is as much a suggestion of the tensions within the definitions of postmodernism developed among architectural critics and cultural critics as it is a reflection of the movement† (Rees; 100). The Christof character expresses, â€Å"We accept the reality of the world with which we are presented.† Unfortunately, it is the escalating degree to which existing with each other seems to be regulated—and worse, regulated from within—that causes concern that the domino effect of withdrawal from larger society will occur. That may be Utopia for some; it is completely synthetic for most. The New Urbanist design and codification is unlikely to be sufficient to allow a community to evolve. New Urbanism in The Truman Show Essay -- movies, films, film analysis The Town of Seahaven Island is spiritually uplifting, quaint, and completely artificial. Everything and everyone, including the main character, Truman, are predictable in habit and pattern. Nothing happens spontaneously or out of synch. When Truman steps out of his usual routine, the entire town must leap into choreography of damage control. Carefully anticipated, controlled perfection must be restored, but this portrayal of contemporary urban life, however exaggerated, may be inappropriate (Rees; 2003; 104). New Urbanists believe physical design can influence behaviours and attitudes and cause organic evolution of ideal communities. In fact, romanticizing the village model through architectural codification and rules of development may be less engaging than vague and bland. Several criticisms of the New Urbanism style of community, versions of which are becoming extremely privatized, have been discussed. The New Urbanism regime of community is utopian and unnatural—a contradiction of the very ideals purported. New Urbanism is â€Å"family values architecture† of middle-class conservatism (Rees; 103). The simulated island portrayed in this film is certainly that. There are no distinctions of citizen wealth; everyone has a job except for the father who is initially portrayed as a wildly uncharacteristic homeless person. There are even an inordinate number of street sweepers and window washers. The costumes are decidedly 1950’s conservative values in style. These symbols are as stereotypical as the architecture, invoking a sense of pretense rather than the social transformation New Urbanists advance as â€Å"new† and therefore â€Å"good†. The New Urbanist outlook is one calling for an attractive, usable and democratic public commun... ...gle of totality (anything that is not New Urbanist is â€Å"bad†), the premise of New Urbanism being postmodern is confusing. â€Å"The location of New Urbanism both inside and outside postmodernism is as much a suggestion of the tensions within the definitions of postmodernism developed among architectural critics and cultural critics as it is a reflection of the movement† (Rees; 100). The Christof character expresses, â€Å"We accept the reality of the world with which we are presented.† Unfortunately, it is the escalating degree to which existing with each other seems to be regulated—and worse, regulated from within—that causes concern that the domino effect of withdrawal from larger society will occur. That may be Utopia for some; it is completely synthetic for most. The New Urbanist design and codification is unlikely to be sufficient to allow a community to evolve.

Interview and Modern World

‘You Will Be Hearing From Us Shortly' – notes by E S Bhavani Following is the presentation notes on Perspective IV Semester lesson ‘You will be Hearing from us Shortly' a poem by U A Fanthrope. The presentation was made for II year JPEng class by E S Bhavani on 24 Nov. ————————————————————————————— Institutionalising the Individual An analysis of ‘You Will Be Hearing From Us Shortly’ U. A. Fanthorpe (Click here for the text of the poem) A little bit about the author†¦ Ursula Aksham Fanthorpe was born in Kent. Having studied at Oxford she went on to train as a teacher becoming the Head of the Department at Cheltenham Ladies College (1962-1970) who dropped out after training as a councillor to become a clerk in a hospital for neuropsychiatry disorders. Her poems since then started reflecting experiences of the patients. Her first collection of poems were published when she was 49. Her poems seem to question authority and show compassion to people at the same time. Her most successful poems have been in monologue while others have a great deal of humour and dialogue in them unlike the usual structure of poetry we are used to. Most of her poems are of two voices. Other dominant themes in her writings are war and it’s effects on children, the nature of Englishness and the British character and history. It was in 1989 that she became a full-time writer who gives readings of her work mostly in the UK and at times abroad. She became the first woman to be nominated for the post of Oxford Professor of Poetry and has been awarded many fellowships. In 2003 she was awarded the 2003 Queen’s Gold Medal for Poetry. An Overview: The underlying theme used to analyse the text is the concept of ‘modern’ or rather the factors that complete or contribute to a modern lifestyle. This particular theme has especially been chosen because personally I have been very fascinated with the word ‘modern’ as it has been something that quite frankly has not found an universally appeal. Ask a layman what it means to be ‘modern’ the answer can vary enough to drive a human being mad (unless that is what modernity intends to do), in a general sense perhaps one can classify being modern in terms of a time-span or choose to take another harder stance and explore. And it is in this intention that I hope to explore the text. Keeping that in mind, we will first look at the poem and try to summarize in relation to the world today with the underlying presumption that we are all evolved human beings living in a modern world. The summary will also lay the foundation to help better understand the different concepts and theories to be discussed. Having once given a common understanding of the text, it becomes necessary to find different means of being able to engage with the text and this is precisely what we shall be doing in different modes of reading. Of course, the different means provided here are not given as ultimatums rather hope to reveal scope for further models of interpreting the piece. With three different modes of reading established, our focus moves onto the dominant themes that revolve around the poem which will help appreciate the text in various forms. One of the major revelations of poetry-reading can be achieved by evaluating the title given to it from a generic sense, therefore we shall try and decipher what You Will Be Hearing From Us Shortly refers to with emphasis on the word ‘shortly’ as it seems to stick to the original codes of understanding concepts of being modern in terms of time-relevance. It becomes inevitable but to look at the structuring of the text to find hidden meanings (atleast conceivable hidden meanings) once analysed focussing on the word ‘shortly’. Our concluding part of the analysis throws light on the different layers that exist within the piece aiming to break the traditional moulds of analysing a text. It seeks to prove that a particular writing can be highlighted in more ways than just one especially given the freedom in the Modern World. A Summarised Perspective: The poem showcases the concept of an interview, giving prominence to perhaps the negative aspects. The poet challenges fundamental concepts of interviewing and reveals it in a dialogic form. An interesting theory would be to understand that though it is presented in a dialogue form nowhere in the entire poem do we hear the interviewee’s voice although both their mind-sets and personalities are revealed to some extent. The interviewer focuses on several aspects of the interviewee that makes one wonder if this is the standard norms for how an interview is held. The interviewer somehow seems distracted as he goes about the interview in a manner that can be debated. Once we hear all the questions the interviewer asks we are left with a question ourselves – what is really important? And what does it take for a successful interview? Where is the emphasis given upon in this competitive world? When analysing these factors we come across the basis: that each one of them are very vulnerable to time. Every aspect that the interviewer focuses on the candidate could differ greatly at different time periods. Someone who graduated first in his class in 1996 could relatively prove â€Å"unintelligent† when compared to someone who graduated in 2006. When dealing with such a volatile situation it makes you wonder if Fanthorpe is really trying to project that these constitute the essence that makes what the modern world is and this very necessity to erase the lines drawn between one’s personal and professional life exposes domination of the modern world. We find this domination becoming crystal clear as the interviewer is able to convince the interviewee that his existence is a pity by the end of the poem. We shall understand this power-play better when we deal with the different themes within the poem but underlying modern concepts of functioning can be seen by psychological manipulation of many sorts. Modes of Reading: It often occurs to me that any text is usually dealt in one particular fashion ignoring all the other possibilities. So, starting with the basics I’m hoping to introduce ways of reading the same text in distinctive patterns. Attempting this, here are three patterns my mind was able to lay out. 1. A Monologue Reading Having established very confidently that this is a dialogic poem it would be rather hard to treat it as a monologue but not unimaginable. If one chooses to treat it in this manner we are again provided with two more options; to understand it as a monologue of the interviewer or the interviewee himself. If we are considering it as a monologue of the interviewer one can assume that social restrictions do not give him the liberty of saying the things out loud and thus it can be concluded as manifestations of his own mind. What we can focus around here are the social implications that could provoke an interviewer to wonder about. Another monologue perspective could be to analyse it from the point of view of an amateur and his apprehensions about the interview. This can simply be put off as nervousness or understand it by reflecting on the causes for such apprehensions. Both of these to some level show us an unrealistic perspective and irrational fears one might have. What is crucial here is that what one might consider unrealistic can turn out to be not so and perhaps we are moving towards a rather unrealistic future. 2. The Silenced Interviewee This mode has been especially chosen due to the lack of representation of the interviewee. We find that there is no voice given to the interviewee, we are left to believe the notions made by the interviewer as the ultimate truth. What does this signify? Giving absolute power to the interviewer who represents a major part of the organization whose words we blindly believe. This casual scenario exposes personal invasion made by the modern world, where individuals are given fewer opportunities to showcase themselves from their point of view rather forced to accept it in relation to societal norms. This of course leads to what I like to call â€Å"virtual representations† of each of us. Projection of ourselves in a corporate world changes from what we are to what we are suppose to be and this hopeful process of changing reflects the virtual representations that we make of ourselves every single day. And during this struggle to meet the ideal virtual representation we encounter a loss, loss of our personal identity that seems trivial in comparison to the large organization that exists. 3. From A Young Interviewee In a rather simplistic sense one can read it as nothing but apprehensions that a young interviewee has, a reflection of general concerns that one might have before his first interview. When analysing it from this mode we are forced to consider the social pressures that lead one to dwell under such tension. I have chosen to treat it in this specific manner mainly because the idea of the poem being apprehensions of an amateur does not seem absurd but what contradicts this simple explanation is the interviewee being –married, children- in the poem. This is the intriguing aspect of which I wish to explore where perhaps it is meant to show that everyone is treated as an amateur and it does not change much for an older experienced applicant or a new-comer and how both are treated in the same manner. Either that or it could simply be seen in terms of time-relevance as mentioned in the summarized perspective. Dominant Themes: Three themes have been chosen keeping in mind the most irrelevant concepts or rather the most ignored aspects of this poem. Not claiming that no one has understood this piece of text in this manner but attempting to bring together seemingly irrelevant pieces of information to form what can be called one important perspective. 1. Power Relations â€Å"Power is everywhere†¦becomes it comes from everywhere† – Michele Focault The above quote shall serve as the foundation for the rest of my argument. It seems only obvious to pick power relations as one of the dominant themes in the poem after having mentioned everything above. The entire concept of power requires no historical background or knowledge to analyse as in every sphere of human act there have been power; of course some more preferable than the others. And power can be understood in many ways, all of which can be applied to the text. In relation to the poem, power relations needs to be understood in terms of the corporate world where hierarchy and monitored functioning are in their zenith. It would seem rather stupid to ignore such a concept in the corporate world. Power relations become interesting especially while trying to relate to the corporate or modern world from the past, as we have evolved we have evolved within ourselves the very ideals of how we use or abuse power. One such understanding can be achieved by Alvin Toffler’s theory of power in historical sense; the beginning of power can be recognized as barbaric, where man could portray his domination only in primitive expressions or in other words through violence. This of course went through many changes although even today we find this dominates our impulse and history stands as the book of truth to reveal to us how exhibition of being powerful transformed from violence to wealth. Although one can argue very confidently that for quite a long period of time they both worked closely with one another to great lengths. As time passed by, we now arrive to our present state where power is displayed through a fluid concept termed as â€Å"intelligence† otherwise known as knowledge or information. The transformation that has taken place over the years makes power relations especially a delicate topic to engage with as it has now moved from a plain one dimensional model to a three dimensional functioning aspect of a society. Where at times all the three previously mentioned tools of power are used but in greatly differing indirect means. Another mode of looking at it comes from the Classic Study by French and Raven (1959) where they ntroduced five bases of power; positional (where power is issued based on the position you hold), referent (power understood as how influential or how convincing one is able to build loyalty around him), expert (power based on the expertise one holds over a subject), coercive (in terms of primitive means, violence) and reward (if one is able to give or withheld rewards of any kind). An additional base was added a little later rightly termed as the Informational base that reflects a society in the face of an aftermath of information explosion. Thus, information becomes power and power is very generously available to anyone who chooses to find it. Understanding power relations in this mode becomes increasingly difficult to define in precise terms. We can perhaps say Foucault’s quote finally establishes itself in modern society. When everyone has equal opportunities to find the power that they want, it becomes a universal characteristic of man. Now, it becomes dangerous as trends in power change drastically leaving man completely vulnerable to the dictates of the modern world.

Conduct Disorder And Causative Factors Case Study Social Work Essay Essay Example

Conduct Disorder And Causative Factors Case Study Social Work Essay Essay Example Conduct Disorder And Causative Factors Case Study Social Work Essay Essay Conduct Disorder And Causative Factors Case Study Social Work Essay Essay This essay will look at the instance survey of Eric which is adapted from Cunningham, P and Page, T. F. ( 2001 ) in relation to carry on upset, causative factors and appropriate intercessions to turn to Eric s behavior upset. The DSM-IV provinces that Conduct upset is repeated and relentless form of behavior which the basic rights of others or cardinal age-appropriate societal norms and/or regulations are being violated ( American Psychiatric Association, 2000 ) . The displayed behavior autumn into four chief groups ; aggressive behavior that causes or threatens physical injury to others or animate beings, non-aggressive behavior that causes belongings loss or harm, craftiness or larceny and serious misdemeanors of regulations ( American Psychiatric Association, 2000 ) . Three or more characteristic behaviors must be present during the past 12 months, with at least one of the characteristic behaviors being present in the last six months ( American Psychiatric Association, 2000 ) . Th e behavior is normally present in a assortment of scenes such as place, school, or the community ; the perturbation in behaviour causes important harm in societal, academic or occupational operation ( American Psychiatric Association, 2000 ) . Eric is a 13 twelvemonth old, white male who is presently populating in a residential installation ; he is of normal intelligence and has no underlying wellness jobs other than fleshiness, he spent the first four old ages of his life populating with younger sister in the attention of their male parent after his female parent abandoned the household when he was aged 2 ( Cunningham, 2001 ) . Eric s place life consisted of changeless disregard and maltreatment against himself and his sister every bit good as his female parent before she left, after traveling into province detention Eric and his sister were sent to three impermanent arrangements before come ining a long term Foster place ( Cunningham, 2001 ) . Eric has shown behaviors which would back up the appraisal of behavior upset ; the behavior which he has exhibited or that have been reported are ; His Foster female parent stated that in the early yearss of remaining with her he would openly talk about his maltreatment and loss, although the statements were frequently confusing and inconsistent following this, old ages after his initial arrangement in her attention Eric said that he witnessed his male parent killing his female parent and that his male parent was sent to prison where he died ( Cunningham, 2001 ) . The Foster female parent reported that after several months Eric s behavior changed and he became progressively agitated, with frequent explosions of aggression, she said his behavior was inconsistent and noted that he appeared peculiarly angry towards her ; and as the old ages went by Eric began damaging and stealing her properties ( Cunningham, 2001 ) . This exhibited behavior shows marks of aggression to people, and devastation of belongings. Eric s behavior became so riotous and violent ; which included fire-setting, physically aggression and self-destructive ideation that his Foster female parent feared for his and her ain safety so he was so removed from her attention ( Cunningham, 2001 ) . Eric was placed in several impermanent Foster places and group places which due his aggressive and non-compliant behavior with his equals and health professionals he has spent the last seven months in a extremely restricted residential installation which he will stay in until his behavior allows for him to travel into a less restricted arrangement ( Cunningham, 2001 ) . These behaviors identified by people in Eric s life have described lineations behaviors of three out of the four groups for naming behavior upset harmonizing to the DSM-IV ; Eric has displayed aggression towards people, devastation of belongings and craftiness and larceny based on what has been observed in the instance survey this would back up an appraisal of behavior upset. There are several events which occurred in Eric s early old ages which have influenced him and would hold contributed to his behavior. For the four old ages old to Eric being put into province detention ; Eric was abandoned by his female parent, suffered from changeless disregard and maltreatment from his male parent every bit good as witnessing sexual maltreatment from his male parent towards his sister ( Cunningham, 2001 ) . He was so passed around through three impermanent arrangements before being topographic point in a long term Foster place ( Cunningham, 2001 ) . Eric was so removed from his long term Foster place after 5 old ages which resulted in him being moved around a batch of the following four old ages through different impermanent Foster place and group places. Henggeler et Al. ( 2009 ) states that there are cardinal cause and correlativities to which antisocial behavior in striplings develop, which occur on five degrees ; The immature individual The household Their equals Their school, and The vicinity. Eric s behavior harmonizing to these degrees had developed on a household degree ; as a immature kid Eric had hapless supervising, inconsistent or slack subject and hapless relationships between himself, his parents and his sister. Besides one time in province detention Eric would of besides had inconsistent subject as a consequence of being around so much, and would non hold developed relationships with health professionals ( Henggeler, 2009 ) . Harmonizing to Dunnachie ( 2007 ) two interventions which would be considered to be effectual in turn toing Eric s behaviors are Multi-Systemic Therapy and Functional Family Therapy. Multi-Systemic Therapy is believed to be the most effectual intercession for immature people with behavior upset ; this attack recognises the multi-determined nature of serious antisocial behavior ( Dannachie, 2007 ) . The intervention consists of multiple intercessions ; the different interventions include utilizing techniques such as: Systemic and structural household therapy ( such as connection, reframing, passage, paradox, the assignment of specific undertakings ) Parent preparation, matrimonial therapy supportive therapy related to interpersonal jobs Social accomplishments constituents Social position preparation Behavioral methods ( such as, eventuality catching ) and Cognitive therapy techniques ( such as, self-instructional preparation ) Equally good as a instance by instance direction with the healer who takes a function as an advocator between the outside bureaus ( Dannachie, 2007 ) . Multi-Systemic Therapy is consistent with Bronnfenbrenner s ( 1979 ) theory of societal ecology, one of the primary premise of Multi-Systemic Therapy is that the striplings antisocial behavior is motivated by the interaction of the hazard factors which are linked with the multiple systems in which the young person is embedded, hence in order for Multi-Systemic Therapy to be effectual, the intercessions have the capacity to turn to a comprehensive aggregation of hazard factors on an single footing along with edifice protective factors ( Henggeler, 2009 ) . Functional Family Therapy aims to accomplish a alteration in forms of interaction and communicating in order to motivate adaptative household operation ; this is based on societal larning constructs with a focal point on specific stimulations and responses which have to ability to bring forth alteration ( Dannachie, 2007 ) . To get down with the blaming ascriptions established in the households are identified ; the behavioural, cognitive and emotional outlooks, inappropriate ascription and systemic procedures that are in demand of alteration are outlined and addressed utilizing chiefly cognitive methods ( Dannachie, 2007 ) . By utilizing Multi-Systemic Therapy or Functional Family Therapy the causative factors in Eric s household would be addressed ; in Multi-Systemic Therapy through looking at and reflecting on his upbringing and looking at the different therapies in which would let him to research and happen ways of covering with the feelings he has towards his household and work on ways to travel past the behavior he s exhibiting. Functional Family Therapy would assist turn to the causative factors within Eric s household by utilizing societal acquisition constructs the thought that both the effects of behavior and an person s beliefs about those effects determines personality and working with Eric towards accomplishing self-efficacy ( Carlson, 1997 ) . Eric needs person in his life who is consistent and honest with him in order for him to construct positive relationships with person in his life, Trotter states that for effectual work with an nonvoluntary client at that place needs to be ; clear honest and frequent treatments about the functions of the worker and the client this would be influential for Eric as it would assist him open up the lines of communicating with the worker and assist him to experience comfy within the state of affairs ( Trotter, 2006 ) . Trotter ( 2006 ) besides suggests worker focal point on modeling and encouraging pro-social looks and actions by the client. This has the potency for Eric to see and see how life could be for him ; as he has non had a changeless beginning of pro-social modeling in his life. And to join forces problem-solving, concentrating on the client s definitions of jobs and ends, this would be effectual with Eric as it would be a utile tool in leting him to reflect on his behavior and e xpression at ways in which he wants to alter instead than Eric merely being instructed on altering behavior ( Trotter, 2006 ) . Trotter ( 2006 ) so talks about attacks that sometimes work ; the worker client relationship would be as facet of strength-based instance direction which would be utile to utilize while working with Eric. The worker-client relationship consists of seven elements including ; Concern for clients Committedness to and credence of duties towards clients Credence of the client as a individual non as their actions Expectation or belief that people can alter Empathy or apprehension of the clients feelings and point of position Genuineness and congruity, and Appropriate usage of authorization and power ( Trotter, 2006 ) This component of strength-based instance direction would be really utile working with Eric as he does non look to hold anyone in his life who he has a bond with ; and this would let him to experience accepted despite his mistakes and could assist promote him to get down to look at altering his behavior. Eric s behavior over clip has rebelliously developed into more antisocial and riotous behaviors. Eric appears to be missing holding a supportive role-model in his life he has spent a batch of his clip being moved around surrogate and group places where the longest clip he has spent in one topographic point is five old ages. Clearly being in a extremely restricted residential installation is non turn outing to be a successful intercession for Eric and he would possible turn his behavior around with some strength-based instance direction in concurrence with some Multi-Systemic Therapy or Functional Family Therapy.

Ýnteractive TV essays

à nteractive TV essays The Web and the Internet are the latest technologies to be harnessed by companies trying to develop interactive television. This paper reviews the efforts of technology companies and broadcasters to combine television and the Web in their products and activities, and how users are already using them both at home. It reviews some research on the way that TV and the PC/Internet are used at home, and suggests some way that the Web could be integrated with television use. Unlike earlier interactive television projects, where the innovation was largely conducted behind closed doors and among consortia of companies, the innovation environment in which Web-based interactive television is being developed includes a huge number of existing users, technology and content suppliers who play an active role the innovation process. The concept of social learning is suggested as the area of development of tools to understand the process of technical, social and cultural change around innovation of t his sort. In particular the idea of poles of attraction is introduced to understand why a huge numbers of supply side players and users are orienting towards the Internet as a possible solution to interactive television. 1. Introduction Of all the visions of the future of television (note 1), interactive television (I-TV) is perhaps the most radical and powerful. In this vision the ubiquitous television set will change from being a device to watch television shows or films into a home terminal for access to and interaction with networked interactive technology, programs and services. The possibilities and benefits of the technology seem self-evident, if only they can be made to work effectively and at a modest price. Many times we have been told to expect interactive television any day now. (note 2) However, after millions of dollars spent, and many pilots and service closures, most of us are still no closer to having interactive television tha...

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Drama in the Classroom - Essay Example Different states in this world have promoted drama as a tool for learning and it has been added in the education policy of these states. Drama not only increases the awareness of children but also increases their skills in such a manner that they can read write build up their self esteem confidence etc. This essay further with the help of different researches conducted through out the world help would prove that Drama is a tool for learning. In the United Kingdom the education policy added the feature of drama so as to make the children learn with an environment which they would like. It has been reported since then that the students who took part in these drama programs turned out to be good learners. The dramas influenced the children in a good way and the children increasingly after watching these dramas took part in educational processes. It was found through different researches conducted that the children were acting as they were told to act by the teachers and thus they were losing self esteem. Self esteem is considered to be very important in achieving certain gains in life (Davies and Brember 1999). And furthermore if this self esteem is not build upon in the younger ages one cannot build it up in the future stages of life. Seeing such a situation prevailing in the world the government of UK particularly pointed out arts to play an important role in building up the skills of children and it encouraged schools to bring in programs of creativity in their curriculum. In the UK National Theatre took the charge of helping schools in adding creativity in the learning process of the students and this proved to be beneficial in achieving the tasks. It was also found through different researches that active participation and creativeness helps in building up the learning skills of the children. And thus drama can be viewed as a particular tool which encourages both participation and creativeness in the children. The drama programs in schools have their own way of learning as portrayed in the dramas. The artists in the drama particularly point out particular ways of learning which can help in building up the skills of children. Furthermore the importance of drama can be seen in a statement given by the HMI which says 'The teaching and learning of drama' (1990) supported this dual nature of drama as a teaching method and an arts subject.Whilst the National Curriculum omits drama in the primary curric ulum as an individual subject area, it is mentioned as a teaching tool in the Orders for Maths, History, Geography, Science and English. Furthermore it is also ascertained that drama provides an interactive feature to the children which can help the children to express and present themselves as they want to. This can help in building up the self esteem of children (Clipson-Boyles 1998: 4).The concept of dramas is coming back to the platform once again as different Art Councils all over the world are taking notice of the importance of these dramas in building up the skills of children. Dramas also comprise of games in which the children are allowed to answer questions such as their favorite character theme or scene. These games allow the artists to tell children how interesting and exciting a drama would be. Interviews done in the UK after a drama game was played showed that games were most liked by the children (Word Alive 2003,Primary Classics 2004). As one of the children gave his

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Water needs in Urban Countries Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

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Epicurean Ethics Essay Example for Free

Epicurean Ethics Essay Upon understanding the brief and general philosophy of how to live a good life from an Epicurean’s viewpoint, I too thought that his philosophy centered around the self, how to achieve pleasure for the self, how to avoid pain to protect the self, all of which did seem very egoistic. However, throughout reading some of his theories and ideas, analyzing them, as well as reading other philosophers’ interpretations, I was able to see how this can be misunderstood if not given careful thought. This common misconception of his philosophy was widely misunderstood because although his philosophy centered around gaining pleasure for the self and avoiding pain, it also focused on not acting upon greed when on the search of pleasure, and only satisfying needs that are natural and absolutely necessary for the survival of an individual, rather than on the kind of pleasure that is achieved by eating luxurious foods, drinking fancy wines, having a high social status and indulging in materialistic things. Aside from having pleasure as the primary goal in life, Epicurus focused a good deal on how to avoid pain as well. In fact, Epicurus defines and measures pleasure not by how much happiness it may bring to the soul and body, but by the absence of pain which is the only way to achieve pleasure. He categorizes pleasure into three different parts which will be discussed later in this paper, as well as how one can have a peaceful and tranquil mind. To achieve the state of mind that Epicurus believes will bring pleasure to an individual’s life, one must eliminate all fears and anxieties over the unknown such as the power of God and how much of one’s life is dependent on the higher being. To ease these frightening thoughts and anxieties, Epicurus believed it was necessary to explain all of the unknown factors of the supernatural such as the fact that Gods have no interest in human affairs and live in their own society. He also thought that much of the stress and anxiety came from not knowing what happens to the body and the soul after death. Being a naturalist, he thought it was best to explain his theory in scientific terms that are more clear and concise rather than something that was mythical and could have been made up. Although he used the atomist theory to inspire his own, he made significant changes to it explaining exactly what does happen to the soul and the body and how there should be nothing to fear and be anxious over. Epicurus was a naturalist and adapted the concept of the atomist theory to his own beliefs. As briefly stated before, he believed that fear and anxiety comes from not knowing the unknown, such as supernatural occurrences, the concept of God, and life after death. Therefore, by explaining how the divine and all powerful works and advising one not to fear the Gods, as well as using the atomist theory to come up with his own theory so that one knows exactly what will happen to the body and soul after death, he believes that there would be much less anxiety and fear in the mind of an Epicurean. According to the atomist theory, the universe is composed of only two things which are infinite shapes and sizes of atoms, and an infinite void. The atoms of which our universe is composed of are infinite in number, unchangeable, and are unable to be cut or divided. It also states that our senses originate from atoms being cut off by objects Epicurus however, believed that our senses originate from our judgments and perceptions of these atoms rather than atoms being cut off by objects. Although Epicurus adapted this theory, he also made significant changes to it in support of his teachings on living a life of a tranquil mind. He emphasized it’s importance to prove that people shouldn’t have fear of life after death because if death means the loss of all consciousness in the mind and the dissolution of the body into atoms, then we have nothing to fear. Our perceptions, judgments and experiences of the world are no longer in our consciousness, because death is the lack of all these things, therefore once death comes there would be nothing to fear or feel such as pain because our consciousness which gives life to all these things would be completely gone. Epicurus encourages his students to live a life free from the stress and anxiety of the unknown life after death, giving them a tranquil and peaceful state of mind. This in turn contributes to his theory that to live a complete and happy life of pleasures, one must be free of all worries and anxieties, as well as avoiding bodily pain. Epicurus also believed that the source of trouble in our consciousness and what causes stress and anxiety in the mind is the fear of the divine and all powerful God. Although Epicurus is not an Atheist and was like most others during his time a polytheistic believing in many Gods, his views on religion and the all powerful God varied greatly from the rest. Epicurus never denied the existence of Gods but held a belief that Gods and human beings had no relation to one another. He believed that Gods were not concerned with human affairs and rejected the widely held belief that Gods gave us reason to live in peace and harmony so that we can be happy and live a good life. He also rejected the idea that Gods held complete control of the path of our lives and worried over us and our conflicts greatly and instead, believed that Gods had their own separate lives and affairs and were always in the highest state of happiness. According to Panichas’ essay in Epicurus on â€Å"Theology†, it is believed that Epicurus never fully justified why he believes that Gods are always happy but says that his belief in Gods came from the idea that we are all born with an innate knowledge of Gods existence. This means that newborn children don’t need to be given the knowledge of the existence of divine power, but are already born with that idea implanted in them. His supporting argument for the existence of Gods is that since everyone is born with the innate idea of their existence, and everyone already has an established opinion of the Gods, then they must exist. Epicurus’ argument against the popular belief of Gods having extreme concern of human affairs and conflicts was that Gods didn’t care for human affairs because they were extremely happy living their own separate lives. Therefore, if Gods were concerned with human conflicts and troubles then they wouldn’t be happy but rather stressed, worried and anxious, which would then make them unhappy. Epicurus’ goal in presenting his arguments using physics and atomism, against religion and its superstitious beliefs, was a way of assuring his students that they shouldn’t disturb the mind because of worries and anxieties over the belief that happiness, misery, and life after death are completely dependent upon the Gods because this in turn comes in conflict with the primary goal of life on earth which is happiness. Instead, he emphasized the importance of attaining courage through meditation on the purpose of life so that human beings can master the fear of death and the gods. A life of happiness and pleasure in Epicurean terms is defined as having a calm and peaceful mind, free of anxieties and worries, as well as a body free of pain. By teaching his students the idea of atomism which frees people from the stress and anxieties of life after death, and the belief that the Gods are not in complete control of our lives and are merely part of their own separate society, Epicurus is able to liberate their anxious and unhappy minds and allows them to live a conscious free life from disturbances and stresses of the unknown world. Epicurus most likely felt the need to fully explain the aspects of supernatural causes which society at the time thought to be controlled by God, as well as other natural phenomena such as how things came about on earth, so that people had a clear understanding of things they had not known before, and in turn no longer fearing them. Popular belief of mass society during the Hellenistic period was that any supernatural occurrences of the world such as the creation of the universe, the existence of human beings, or the world having just enough resources for human beings to be able to survive were all of Gods creations. However, Lucretius who was an Epicurean student stated that the world could not have been created by the Gods because it is imperfect and such perfect beings could not have created something so imperfect as the universe. He proves this idea in support of his argument, by stating that the world in itself which is full of imperfections, giving an example of the large amount of land that is completely useless to mankind but is inhabited by wild animals, or death that stalks every minute of our lives, could have been the creations of the divine and all powerful because if they were, then that would mean that Gods themselves are the sources of all pain and evil. Lucretius also states that an Epicurean must accept the fact that the natural world is mortal, which means it can that it can be diseased with corruption, war, and greed and follows a cycle of creation and destruction within itself. He elaborates on this statement saying the world must be thought of as a mortal body with a beginning, and an end. As stated before, Epicureanism holds the belief that like everything else, Gods are composed of atoms, but atoms that are different than those of human beings. These atoms in On the Nature of the Universe are described as very flimsy atoms that are ethereal, and can be barely perceived by the mind, therefore they cannot be touched. It also says that they exist somewhere among their own nature, which means that they do not exist anywhere near the society of human beings. In explaining this theory to his followers, he did so to prove that there is no reason to live in fear of Gods because they live in a society that is completely separate and different from ours, and as stated before, they are engaged in their own affairs and have no concern for the welfare of human beings. He stressed the importance of this because Epicurus believed that all fear arises from the unknown. The unknown as being what happens to the soul, body, and life after death, and the fear and anxiety over Gods’ declaration punishments or rewards towards human beings. By explaining all the unanswered questions of life, rejecting the idea of Gods being in complete control in the affair of our lives, in simple and naturalistic terms that can be proven through metaphysics, rather than relying on retold myths that cannot be proven, seen, or sensed, he is able to direct their minds towards a positive light in which they can achieve a state of mind that is at peace, allowing them to live their lives in pleasure and happiness. Epicurus’ view on the soul and what happens to it after death greatly varied from the Platonic and Homeric view of the soul. Unlike Plato who believed that the soul became part of a heavenly pilgrimage, and the Homeric view that the soul descends into the darkness of the kingdom of the dead, Epicurus believed that the Soul merely dissolves upon death, which is without sensation. This means that since something that dissolves upon death is free of sensing and feeling, then there is no pain, and therefore there is nothing to fear. Although Epicurus agreed with both the Platonic and Homeric view that an individual is composed of the body and the soul, and that upon death, the soul leaves the body, he disagreed on their views of what happens to the soul after death. Epicurus believes that the soul is corporeal, which means that what happens to the body and the soul is a physical occurrence, and once the body starts dissolving, the soul along with the body begins undergoing a physical transformation in which it also dissolves, the process therefore being void of the sensation or perception of what is happening. The soul according to Epicurus was mainly made of breath, heat, and air which he considered to be made of a material substance. These three elements were used by Epicureans to explain the differences in characters and moods of feeling in both humans as well as animals. Aetios sums up the functions of these elements saying that the element of breath gives the soul the power to move, the air gives it tranquility and calmness, and the heat produces the perception of warmth from the body. Epicurus also believed that the soul was made of an unknown element as well, that is much more advanced in structure and its function in the soul which allows it to feel in harmony with the rest of the elements as well as the body. Lucretius further elaborated on this hidden fourth element by stating that it is a crucial part of the soul because it provides the soul with sensation. Although the soul is the major cause of sensation, it cannot sense without the body. This then means that the soul cannot sense without the body, and the body cannot sense without the soul. Lucretius states that the soul and the body must be united for a human being to have full access to sensation, therefore one cannot survive without the other . This theory is used in support of their argument of what happens to the soul after it is released from the body, which is that since the soul which brings sensation, reason, and perception of the outside world to the body, is released from the body, the body can no longer feel or come up with reason or judgment of what is occurring. The soul however, has a more significant role in the making of an individual than the body does because if a part of the body is lost, such as a leg or an arm, the soul is able to remain in the body and still give an individual sensation, whereas the part that was lost such as a leg or an arm although still exists, it can no longer have the soul be a part of it or retain any sensation. In general, the body can be viewed as the home and protection of the soul, and if the body is destroyed, then it can no longer protect nor shelter the soul, and as a result, the soul scatters into tiny separate creative energies. All of Epicurus’ teachings and doctrines can be traced back to, and are in relation to attaining pleasure which is the main goal in life. Epicurus defines pleasure as not having certain sensations of happiness, but rather as the absence of bodily pain and mental disturbance. He also believed that pleasure and pain are the main driving forces of a human being, saying that desire is driven by pleasure, and avoidance is driven by pain. Although many view Epicureanism as a form of egoism in which all actions are taken for the benefit of the self, and although this is true, Epicurus’ theory on attaining pleasure and happiness can be seen as something that is able to balance out, and in turn, become a life of virtue. A balanced life of happiness and virtue according to Epicurus can be attained by being prudent and having a sense of discernment when it comes to pleasure. Therefore, someone who is able to do this by acting carefully when it came to the desires and the indulgences in life, and being virtuous to this belief isn’t necessarily set and done on his/her quest for pleasure, but on the right path to attain it. Epicurus believes that without the ability to sense things such as the sight of beauty, the taste of food, the sound of music, or the feel of an object, true pleasures and happiness cannot be achieved. Therefore, the act of sensation is of extreme importance to an Epicurean because without sensation, the good life is unattainable. Epicurus also states that there is nothing more truthful than sensation. This means that the act of sensing doesn’t need to be proven because we sense things exactly for what they are. Sensations are also not voluntary and are received through direct contact with an object or thing through the five sense organs which are sight, touch, taste, sound, and smell. These five senses, in turn are then perceived in the mind and can be enlarged or diminished in the mind. He then considers arguments against his theory that say that just because we sense things and then perceive them in the mind that does not always make them true. A classic example he gives is an octagonal tower seen from a far distance is in actuality cylindrical, or a tall building from a far distance may look small through the sense of sight, but in reality the building only appears to be small because it is seen from a far distance. To support his argument, Epicurus states that it is then up to the individual to use reason, logic, and our past experiences to determine whether this observation is true or not. Sensation therefore, is the basic foundation of knowledge according to Epicurus. Although sensation is of extreme importance in Epicurean philosophy, the concept of sensation still goes back to the main idea of Epicurus’ teachings which is pleasure and happiness. According to Epicurus, pleasure is the goal of all things. However, to argue against those who say his teachings are egoistic, Epicurus emphasized on the right kind of pleasure. For example, in Epicurus’ â€Å"Letter to Menoceus† he explains that indulging in the pleasures and luxuries of life is not what makes a good life, but the choices we make when in search of pleasure and avoidance of physical or mental pain: â€Å"For it is not continuous drinkings and revellings, nor the satisfaction of lusts, nor the enjoyment of fish, and other luxuries of the wealthy table, which produce a pleasant life, but sober reason, searching, out the motives for all choice and avoidance, and banishing mere opinions, to which are due the greatest disturbances of the spirit. This quote explains that Epicurus is not concerned with the quality of material things such as fine foods and other luxuries, but rather whether these things are enough to eliminate pain so that we can have pleasure. Epicurus believes that the more we can limit our pleasures and desires, especially the ones that are most necessary and natural such as food and water to survive and avoid bodi ly pain, the more we are likely to attain a happy and pleasurable life. To further understand the concept of limiting pleasures and desires, Epicurus states that when one removes all physical and mental pain, for example eating to avoid hunger, or overcoming fear and anxiety to be free of mental pain, is when pleasure can be achieved. However, it is up to the individual to not become engaged in fulfilling â€Å"natural but unnecessary† pleasures, such as eating more than needed, or having luxurious food instead of normal food. Epicurus believes that this is where we must use our judgment and good reason to pick and choose what will best fulfill our needs without being overly self-indulgent. He divides pleasures and desires into three separate categories. The first one is natural and necessary which as stated before, are daily survival necessities like food and water. The second form of pleasure is natural but unnecessary which is a pleasure that is natural such as food, but not necessary such as having extravagant food rather than regular food that would eliminate hunger. Lastly, the third type of pleasure is neither natural nor necessary which refers to fame, having a high status among peers in society, or the desire to be accepted by others. The ability of fully understanding these categories and practicing them religiously on a daily basis will direct one to a life that is free of bodily pain and mental disturbance. Epicurus defines the good life not by the presence of pleasure but by the absence of mental and physical pain. Once the main goal of avoiding pain and fear are achieved, the individual won’t be on the search for something that is missing because all pain is gone, thus, the desire to eliminate it is gone as well leaving the mind and body free of pain and anxiety. Epicurus’ definition of the wise man is one who is free from most troubles. Although peace of the mind is of extreme importance in Epicureanism, one cannot achieve it without being self-sufficient. A wise man, in Epicurean standards is one who does not depend on others. Therefore high held positions such as having political power, or even something as common as marrying and having a family creates too much stress because your life becomes strained with anxiety over the actions of others which are completely out of your control. Epicurus believes that the outside world creates too much pressure that can lead to anxiety because most of the things dealing with the outside world are outside of your control. A life of simplicity and freedom from anxiety and pain are a way of life for a wise man. When one gains complete control over these things, as well as overcoming the fears of the outside world, then one can live a happy and pleasurable life because there is no desire for things which one cannot find him/herself. A free life according to Epicurus also means not having too many possessions because owning too many materialistic things results in robberies which only lead to more consequences and trouble all of which can be avoided. However, what a wise man should do when he is in the possession of many things is donating it and distributing them to those that are less fortunate and those in need. Epicurus says that gaining gratitude from your neighbors is more important than indulging in unnecessary things. This thus proves that an Epicurean life isn’t egoistic as most critics seem to think but rather a way of life in which an individual can live freely without worry. Although the main idea of Epicurus’ philosophy is pleasure as the main goal, the word pleasure has a different meaning than the one we are used to. The word â€Å"pleasure† in epicurean terms means the absence of pain which is why a good amount of Epicurean philosophy discusses ways in which one can avoid pain and eliminate worries, anxieties and fears. Pleasure according to Epicurus has nothing to do with being in the possession of luxurious items because that is not what brings pleasure to the individual but rather a peaceful mental state or being: It is better for you to be free of fear lying upon a pallet, than to have a golden couch and rich table and be full of trouble . † Although Epicurus does not believe in a wise man having a family and advises that one should avoid conforming to society and the pressures of the outside world, he emphasizes the value of a strong friendship and believes it to be the second most important thing in a noble man after wisdom . Even more surprising than this is the fact that Epicurus welcomed women into his school and considered them as potential friends despite the time period and social standards of Ancient Greece at the time. Epicurus welcomed all kinds of people into his school and didn’t look at gender, wealth, age, or social class to determine a person’s worth of attending. Aside from not picking student and friends based on external factors, Epicurus believed that all friendships arise from self-interest: â€Å"Every friendship in itself is to be desired; but the first cause of friendship was a man’s needs . However, friendships can’t always be seen as a relationship between two people that’s driven solely on one’s own self-interests and benefits, they should be much more and beyond that. Throughout time, Epicurus believes that a friendship that once started only as an act of self-satisfaction to benefit the self can become much more intimate and grow beyond the desire to be friends just to gain needs driven by sole self-interest. He also advised that friendships shouldn’t be pushed to their extremes when on the pursuit of benefits and should not be pushed to the extreme if it’s completely void of all benefits because then, the individual would have no desire to keep the friendship alive at all. Once two friends can overcome that stage of self-interest and gain intimacy then all expectations of each other and what is needed for the benefit of the self is gone. The mere fact of just knowing and having a friend and his/her company should bring enough pleasure to the individual to not care about other things that would only benefit the self. Epicurus did not believe that sexual love was of any benefit to an individual and although it can be associated with bringing pleasure, it causes much more disturbances in the mind that far outweigh the pleasures it may bring: â€Å"No pleasure is a bad thing in itself, but the means which produce some pleasures bring with them disturbances many times greater than the pleasures. Epicurus believes that fulfilling sexual desires are unnecessary for the survival of an individual and can be dealt without, considering how much mental disturbance it may bring afterwards. Epicurus categorizes this pleasure as the â€Å"natural and unnecessary† which means that although the desire for attaining sexual pleasure may be completely natural for the individual, it isn’t necessary for survival, therefore it is not an absolute necessity. This thus makes the act of fulfilling sexual pleasure to be vain and selfish, as well as bringing disturbance to the mind. The reason Epicurus advises the wise man not to engage in sexual encounters is because the pleasure that comes from sex can be too intense for the individual to handle. When something so intense yet so pleasurable becomes a much needed desire, it is sure to bring disturbance to the mind. Another way sexual desire can be seen as creating disturbances in the mind is considering how before sexual pleasures can be fulfilled, one must pursue the person of the opposite sex and develop an intimate level of friendship or relationship. With that relationship comes fear and anxiety over losing your partner and concerns of what the future might bring. After a relationship has been developed, child bearing is the next step which creates even more disturbances to the mind, because with children come more external and outside powers that are out of your control which result in fears, frustrations, hopes anxieties and pain all of which can be avoided if one does not become involved in an intimate sexual relationship. How does one avoid mental disturbances to achieve peace in the mind? Epicurus believes that pleasure can still be attained without fulfilling sexual desires by simply forming strong friendships and developing a level of intimacy that would allow the friendship to survive solely on that level of intimacy and not self-interested benefits and needs. Once a deep enough level of intimacy has been developed, things such as trust, loyalty, and pleasure will surely ensue afterwards. Whereas a relationship driven by sexual pleasures will result in jealousy, hate, possessiveness, anger, and bittersweet memories that could last a lifetime. Therefore, to avoid having to go through these struggles in life and living a life of simplicity and freedom, Epicurus advises one to seek friendships that doesn’t require too much of one’s time, energy, and physical or mental strength. Living the life of an Epicurean means living a life of simplicity, avoiding anything that is too dangerous for one’s well being even if it is the norm in society such as getting married, and being on a life long pursuit for pleasure. As stated before, from a quick glance at Epicurus’ philosophy, one can conclude that his teachings were all self centered, however, upon further reading into his doctrines, as well as how other philosophers were able to interpret and justify some of his teachings, his true meaning of a virtuous and good life can be more clearly understood. His philosophies on how to be a wise man and achieve the good life prove how non egoistic Epicureanism is. Although it does always focus on gaining pleasure for the self, it does so only to a certain extent in which one attains enough pleasure to eliminate the pain. Once that has been achieved, going on a pursuit for more pleasure is considered vain, and as I have discussed before, Epicurus categorizes this pleasure as the â€Å"natural and unnecessary† or â€Å"unnatural and unnecessary. † Therefore he advises one not to seek these kinds of pleasures because that can create more disturbances in the mind. His thorough explanation and solution on how to achieve a tranquil mind by giving insight on the Gods and what happens to the soul and body after death are also a huge part of his philosophy. Overall, Epicureanism was a very modern school of philosophy compared to the time period, and the location of where it had been originated. Epicurus’ way of not discriminating against minorities such as women or the lower class, and not religiously worshiping supernatural beings even though that had been the norm in society, is very much like the life he preaches one should live in which one doesn’t conform to the standards of the masses but pursues a path of his own, where a peaceful mind and a body free of pain can be found.